catalogue
1. Twisted理论基础2. 异步编程模式与Reactor3. Twisted网络编程4. reactor进程管理编程5. Twisted并发连接
1. Twisted理论基础
0x1: 异步编程模型
事件驱动编程是一种编程范式，这里程序的执行流由外部事件来决定。它的特点是包含一个事件循环，当外部事件发生时使用回调机制来触发相应的处理。另外两种常见的编程范式是（单线程）同步以及多线程编程
在这个模型中，任务是交错完成，值得注意的是: 这是在单线程的控制下。这要比多线程模型简单多了，因为编程人员总可以认为只有一个任务在执行，而其它的在停止状态
在异步编程模型与多线程模型之间还有一个不同1. 在多线程程序中，对于停止某个线程启动另外一个线程，其决定权并不在程序员手里而在操作系统那里，因此，程序员在编写程序过程中必须要假设在任何时候一个线程都有可能被停止而启动另外一个线程2. 相反，在异步模型中，所有事件是以异步的方式到达的，然后CPU同样以异步的方式从Cache队列中取出事件进行处理，一个任务要想运行必须显式放弃当前运行的任务的控制权。这也是相比多线程模型来说，最简洁的地方
0x2: 异步编程优点
1. 在单线程同步模型中，任务按照顺序执行。如果某个任务因为I/O而阻塞，其他所有的任务都必须等待，直到它完成之后它们才能依次执行。这种明确的执行顺序和串行化处理的行为是很容易推断得出的。如果任务之间并没有互相依赖的关系，但仍然需要互相等待的话这就使得程序不必要的降低了运行速度 2. 在多线程版本中，这3个任务分别在独立的线程中执行。这些线程由操作系统来管理，在多处理器系统上可以并行处理，或者在单处理器系统上交错执行。这使得当某个线程阻塞在某个资源的同时其他线程得以继续执行。与完成类似功能的同步程序相比，这种方式更有效率，但程序员必须写代码来保护共享资源，防止其被多个线程同时访问。多线程程序更加难以推断，因为这类程序不得不通过线程同步机制如锁、可重入函数、线程局部存储或者其他机制来处理线程安全问题，如果实现不当就会导致出现微妙的bug
与同步模型相比，异步模型的优势在如下情况下会得到发挥
1. 有大量的任务，以至于可以认为在一个时刻至少有一个任务要运行2. 任务执行大量的I/O操作，这样同步模型就会在因为任务阻塞而浪费大量的时间3. 任务之间相互独立，以至于任务内部的交互很少 //这些条件大多在CS模式中的网络比较繁忙的服务器端出现(如WEB服务器)
Relevant Link:
https://likebeta.gitbooks.io/twisted-intro-cn/content/zh/p01.html
2. 异步编程模式与Reactor
1. 异步模式客户端一次性与全部服务器完成连接，而不像同步模式那样一次只连接一个，连接完成后等待新事件的到来2. 用来进行通信的Socket方法是非阻塞模的，这是通过调用setblocking(0)来实现的 3. select模块中的select方法是用来识别其监视的socket是否有完成数据接收的，如果没有它就处于阻塞状态。4. 当从服务器中读取数据时，会尽量多地从Socket读取数据直到它阻塞为止，然后读下一个Socket接收的数据(如果有数据接收的话)。这意味着我们需要跟踪记录从不同服务器传送过来数据的接收情况
以上过程可以被设计成为一个模式: reactor模式
这个循环就是个"reactor"(反应堆)，因为它等待事件的发生然后对其作相应的反应。正因为如此，它也被称作事件循环。由于交互式系统都要进行I/O操作，因此这种循环也有时被称作select loop，这是由于select调用被用来等待I/O操作。因此，在本程序中的select循环中，一个事件的发生意味着一个socket端处有数据来到
值得注意的是，select并不是唯一的等待I/O操作的函数，它仅仅是一个比较古老的函数，现在有一些新API可以完成select的工作而且性能更优，它们已经在不同的系统上实现了。不考虑性能上的因素，它们都完成同样的工作1. 监视一系列sockets(文件描述符)2. 并阻塞程序3. 直到至少有一个准备好的I/O操作
一个真正reactor模式的实现是需要实现循环独立抽象出来并具有如下的功能
1. 监视一系列与I/O操作相关的文件描述符(description)2. 不停地汇报那些准备好的I/O操作的文件描述符3. 处理所有不同系统会出现的I/O事件4. 提供优雅的抽象来帮助在使用reactor时少花些心思去考虑它的存在5. 提供可以在抽象层外使用的公共协议实现
0x1: Twisted中的异步事件模型
Twisted实现了设计模式中的反应堆(reactor)模式，这种模式在单线程环境中调度多个事件源产生的事件到它们各自的事件处理例程中去Twisted的核心就是reactor事件循环。Reactor可以感知网络、文件系统以及定时器事件。它等待然后处理这些事件，从特定于平台的行为中抽象出来，并提供统一的接口，使得在网络协议栈的任何位置对事件做出响应都变得简单 基本上reactor完成的任务就是
while True: timeout = time_until_next_timed_event() events = wait_for_events(timeout) events += timed_events_until(now()) for event in events: event.process()
Twisted目前在所有平台上的默认reactor都是基于poll API的。此外，Twisted还支持一些特定于平台的高容量多路复用API。这些reactor包括基于FreeBSD中kqueue机制的KQueue reactor，支持epoll接口的系统(目前是Linux 2.6)中的epoll reactor，以及基于Windows下的输入输出完成端口的IOCP reactor
在实现轮询的相关细节中，Twisted需要考虑的包括1. 网络和文件系统的限制2. 缓冲行为3. 如何检测连接丢失4. 出现错误时的返回值
Twisted的reactor实现同时也考虑了正确使用底层的非阻塞式API，并正确处理各种边界情况。由于Python中没有暴露出IOCP API，因此Twisted需要维护自己的实现
0x2: Deferreds
Deferred对象以抽象化的方式表达了一种思想，即结果还尚不存在。它同样能够帮助管理产生这个结果所需要的回调链。当从函数中返回时，Deferred对象承诺在某个时刻函数将产生一个结果。返回的Deferred对象中包含所有注册到事件上的回调引用，因此在函数间只需要传递这一个对象即可，跟踪这个对象比单独管理所有的回调要简单的多
Deferred对象包含一对回调链1. 一个是针对操作成功的回调2. 一个是针对操作失败的回调
初始状态下Deferred对象的两条链都为空。在事件处理的过程中，每个阶段都为其添加处理成功的回调和处理失败的回调。当一个异步结果到来时，Deferred对象就被"激活"，那么处理成功的回调和处理失败的回调就可以以合适的方式按照它们添加进来的顺序依次得到调用
0x3: Transports
Transports代表网络中两个通信结点之间的连接。Transports负责描述连接的细节，比如连接是面向流式的还是面向数据报的，流控以及可靠性。TCP、UDP和Unix套接字可作为transports的例子。它们被设计为”满足最小功能单元，同时具有最大程度的可复用性“，而且从协议实现中分离出来，这让许多协议可以采用相同类型的传输。Transports实现了ITransports接口，它包含如下的方法
1. write: 以非阻塞的方式按顺序依次将数据写到物理连接上2. writeSequence: 将一个字符串列表写到物理连接上3. loseConnection: 将所有挂起的数据写入，然后关闭连接4. getPeer: 取得连接中对端的地址信息5. getHost: 取得连接中本端的地址信息
将transports从协议中分离出来也使得对这两个层次的测试变得更加简单。可以通过简单地写入一个字符串来模拟传输，用这种方式来检查
0x4: Protocols
Protocols描述了如何以异步的方式处理网络中的事件。HTTP、DNS以及IMAP是应用层协议中的例子。Protocols实现了IProtocol接口，它包含如下的方法
1. makeConnection: 在transport对象和服务器之间建立一条连接2. connectionMade: 连接建立起来后调用3. dataReceived: 接收数据时调用4. connectionLost: 关闭连接时调用
Relevant Link:
https://likebeta.gitbooks.io/twisted-intro-cn/content/zh/p02.htmlhttps://likebeta.gitbooks.io/twisted-intro-cn/content/zh/p04.htmlhttp://blog.csdn.net/hanhuili/article/details/9389433http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_704b6af70100py9n.html
3. Twisted网络编程
0x1: Writing Servers
from twisted.internet.protocol import Factoryfrom twisted.protocols.basic import LineReceiverfrom twisted.internet import reactorclass Chat(LineReceiver): def __init__(self, users): self.users = users self.name = None self.state = "GETNAME" def connectionMade(self): self.sendLine("What's your name?") def connectionLost(self, reason): if self.name in self.users: del self.users[self.name] def lineReceived(self, line): if self.state == "GETNAME": self.handle_GETNAME(line) else: self.handle_CHAT(line) def handle_GETNAME(self, name): if name in self.users: self.sendLine("Name taken, please choose another.") return self.sendLine("Welcome, %s!" % (name,)) self.name = name self.users[name] = self self.state = "CHAT" def handle_CHAT(self, message): message = "<%s> %s" % (self.name, message) for name, protocol in self.users.iteritems(): if protocol != self: protocol.sendLine(message)class ChatFactory(Factory): def __init__(self): self.users = {} # maps user names to Chat instances def buildProtocol(self, addr): return Chat(self.users)reactor.listenTCP(8123, ChatFactory())reactor.run() 
0x2: Writing Clients
Twisted is a framework designed to be very flexible, and let you write powerful clients. The cost of this flexibility is a few layers in the way to writing your client
1. single-use clients
In many cases, the protocol only needs to connect to the server once, and the code just wants to get a connected instance of the protocol. In those cases twisted.internet.endpoints provides the appropriate API, and in particular connectProtocol which takes a protocol instance rather than a factory.
from twisted.internet import reactorfrom twisted.internet.protocol import Protocolfrom twisted.internet.endpoints import TCP4ClientEndpoint, connectProtocolclass Greeter(Protocol): def sendMessage(self, msg): self.transport.write("MESSAGE %s\n" % msg)def gotProtocol(p): p.sendMessage("Hello") reactor.callLater(1, p.sendMessage, "This is sent in a second") reactor.callLater(2, p.transport.loseConnection)point = TCP4ClientEndpoint(reactor, "localhost", 1234)d = connectProtocol(point, Greeter())d.addCallback(gotProtocol)reactor.run() 2. ClientFactory
Still, there’s plenty of code out there that uses lower-level APIs, and a few features (such as automatic reconnection) have not been re-implemented with endpoints yet, so in some cases they may be more convenient to use.
To use the lower-level connection APIs, you will need to call one of the reactor.connect* methods directly. For these cases, you need a ClientFactory . The ClientFactory is in charge of creating the Protocol and also receives events relating to the connection state. This allows it to do things like reconnect in the event of a connection errorfrom twisted.internet import reactorfrom twisted.internet.protocol import Protocol, ClientFactoryfrom sys import stdoutclass Echo(Protocol): def dataReceived(self, data): stdout.write(data)class EchoClientFactory(ClientFactory): def startedConnecting(self, connector): print 'Started to connect.' def buildProtocol(self, addr): print 'Connected.' return Echo() def clientConnectionLost(self, connector, reason): print 'Lost connection. Reason:', reason def clientConnectionFailed(self, connector, reason): print 'Connection failed. Reason:', reasonreactor.connectTCP(host, port, EchoClientFactory())reactor.run()
3. A Higher-Level Example: ircLogBot
# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.# See LICENSE for details."""An example IRC log bot - logs a channel's events to a file.If someone says the bot's name in the channel followed by a ':',e.g.logbot: hello!the bot will reply: foo: I am a log botRun this script with two arguments, the channel name the bot shouldconnect to, and file to log to, e.g.: $ python ircLogBot.py test test.logwill log channel #test to the file 'test.log'.To run the script: $ python ircLogBot.py """# twisted importsfrom twisted.words.protocols import ircfrom twisted.internet import reactor, protocolfrom twisted.python import log# system importsimport time, sysclass MessageLogger: """ An independent logger class (because separation of application and protocol logic is a good thing). """ def __init__(self, file): self.file = file def log(self, message): """Write a message to the file.""" timestamp = time.strftime("[%H:%M:%S]", time.localtime(time.time())) self.file.write('%s %s\n' % (timestamp, message)) self.file.flush() def close(self): self.file.close()class LogBot(irc.IRCClient): """A logging IRC bot.""" nickname = "twistedbot" def connectionMade(self): irc.IRCClient.connectionMade(self) self.logger = MessageLogger(open(self.factory.filename, "a")) self.logger.log("[connected at %s]" % time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))) def connectionLost(self, reason): irc.IRCClient.connectionLost(self, reason) self.logger.log("[disconnected at %s]" % time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))) self.logger.close() # callbacks for events def signedOn(self): """Called when bot has succesfully signed on to server.""" self.join(self.factory.channel) def joined(self, channel): """This will get called when the bot joins the channel.""" self.logger.log("[I have joined %s]" % channel) def privmsg(self, user, channel, msg): """This will get called when the bot receives a message.""" user = user.split('!', 1)[0] self.logger.log("<%s> %s" % (user, msg)) # Check to see if they're sending me a private message if channel == self.nickname: msg = "It isn't nice to whisper! Play nice with the group." self.msg(user, msg) return # Otherwise check to see if it is a message directed at me if msg.startswith(self.nickname + ":"): msg = "%s: I am a log bot" % user self.msg(channel, msg) self.logger.log("<%s> %s" % (self.nickname, msg)) def action(self, user, channel, msg): """This will get called when the bot sees someone do an action.""" user = user.split('!', 1)[0] self.logger.log("* %s %s" % (user, msg)) # irc callbacks def irc_NICK(self, prefix, params): """Called when an IRC user changes their nickname.""" old_nick = prefix.split('!')[0] new_nick = params[0] self.logger.log("%s is now known as %s" % (old_nick, new_nick)) # For fun, override the method that determines how a nickname is changed on # collisions. The default method appends an underscore. def alterCollidedNick(self, nickname): """ Generate an altered version of a nickname that caused a collision in an effort to create an unused related name for subsequent registration. """ return nickname + '^'class LogBotFactory(protocol.ClientFactory): """A factory for LogBots. A new protocol instance will be created each time we connect to the server. """ def __init__(self, channel, filename): self.channel = channel self.filename = filename def buildProtocol(self, addr): p = LogBot() p.factory = self return p def clientConnectionLost(self, connector, reason): """If we get disconnected, reconnect to server.""" connector.connect() def clientConnectionFailed(self, connector, reason): print "connection failed:", reason reactor.stop()if __name__ == '__main__': # initialize logging log.startLogging(sys.stdout) # create factory protocol and application f = LogBotFactory(sys.argv[1], sys.argv[2]) # connect factory to this host and port reactor.connectTCP("irc.freenode.net", 6667, f) # run bot reactor.run()
4. Persistent Data in the Factory
When the protocol is created, it gets a reference to the factory as self.factory . It can then access attributes of the factory in its logic.
Factories have a default implementation of buildProtocol. It does the same thing the example above does using the protocol attribute of the factory to create the protocol instance. In the example above, the factory could be rewritten to look like this:class LogBotFactory(protocol.ClientFactory): protocol = LogBot def __init__(self, channel, filename): self.channel = channel self.filename = filename
Relevant Link:
http://twisted.readthedocs.org/en/latest/core/howto/clients.html
4. reactor进程管理编程
Along with connection to servers across the internet, Twisted also connects to local processes with much the same API.
需要明白的是，reactor是一个编程范式，Twisted是基于这种异步事件编程模型实现的网络编程框架，同样的，reactor异步事件编程模型还可以用在进程时间管理上0x1: Example
#!/usr/bin/env python# Copyright (c) Twisted Matrix Laboratories.# See LICENSE for details.from twisted.internet import protocolfrom twisted.internet import reactorimport reclass MyPP(protocol.ProcessProtocol): def __init__(self, verses): self.verses = verses self.data = "" def connectionMade(self): print "connectionMade!" for i in range(self.verses): self.transport.write("Aleph-null bottles of beer on the wall,\n" + "Aleph-null bottles of beer,\n" + "Take one down and pass it around,\n" + "Aleph-null bottles of beer on the wall.\n") self.transport.closeStdin() # tell them we're done def outReceived(self, data): print "outReceived! with %d bytes!" % len(data) self.data = self.data + data def errReceived(self, data): print "errReceived! with %d bytes!" % len(data) def inConnectionLost(self): print "inConnectionLost! stdin is closed! (we probably did it)" def outConnectionLost(self): print "outConnectionLost! The child closed their stdout!" # now is the time to examine what they wrote #print "I saw them write:", self.data (dummy, lines, words, chars, file) = re.split(r'\s+', self.data) print "I saw %s lines" % lines def errConnectionLost(self): print "errConnectionLost! The child closed their stderr." def processExited(self, reason): print "processExited, status %d" % (reason.value.exitCode,) def processEnded(self, reason): print "processEnded, status %d" % (reason.value.exitCode,) print "quitting" reactor.stop()pp = MyPP(10)reactor.spawnProcess(pp, "wc", ["wc"], {})reactor.run() 0x2: Example
class GPGProtocol(ProcessProtocol): def __init__(self, crypttext): self.crypttext = crypttext self.plaintext = "" self.status = "" def connectionMade(self): self.transport.writeToChild(3, self.passphrase) self.transport.closeChildFD(3) self.transport.writeToChild(0, self.crypttext) self.transport.closeChildFD(0) def childDataReceived(self, childFD, data): if childFD == 1: self.plaintext += data if childFD == 4: self.status += data def processEnded(self, status): rc = status.value.exitCode if rc == 0: self.deferred.callback(self) else: self.deferred.errback(rc)def decrypt(crypttext): gp = GPGProtocol(crypttext) gp.deferred = Deferred() cmd = ["gpg", "--decrypt", "--passphrase-fd", "3", "--status-fd", "4", "--batch"] p = reactor.spawnProcess(gp, cmd[0], cmd, env=None, childFDs={ 0:"w", 1:"r", 2:2, 3:"w", 4:"r"}) return gp.deferred Relevant Link:
http://twistedmatrix.com/documents/12.2.0/core/howto/process.html
5. Twisted并发连接
Some time back I had to write a network server which need to support ~50K concurrent clients in a single box. Server-Client communication used a propitiatory protocol on top of TCP where RawBinaryData Struct is used as the messaging format. Clients exchanged periodic keep-alives which server used to check health state. As most of the operations were IO based(socket/db) we decided to used python/twisted to implement server.
On performing load tests we found that server is able to handle only 1024 client after which connections are failing. Increased per process max open files (1024) to 100000 (ulimit -n 100000) and still the connections failed at 1024.0x1: select limitation
select fails after 1024 fds as FD_SETSIZE max to 1024. Twisted's default reactor seems to be based on select. As a natural progression poll was tried next to over come max open fd issue.
0x2: poll limitation
poll solves the max fd issue. But as the number of concurrent clients started increasing, performance dropped drastically. Poll implementation does O(n) operations internally and performance drops as number of fds increases.
0x3: epoll
Epoll reactor solved both problems and gave awesome performance. libevent is another library build on top of epoll.
0x4: Async frameworks
do not waste time with 'select/poll' based approaches if the number of concurrent connection expected is above 1K. Following are some of the event-loop based frameworks where this is applicable.
1. Eventlet (python)2. Gevent (python) is similar to eventlet uses libevent which is build on top of epoll.3. C++ ACE 4. Java Netty5. Ruby Eventmachine
0x5: Choosing a Reactor and GUI Toolkit Integration(new twisted)
Twisted provides a variety of implementations of the twisted.internet.reactor. The specialized implementations are suited for different purposes and are designed to integrate better with particular platforms.
The epoll()-based reactor is Twisted's default on Linux. Other platforms use poll(), or the most cross-platform reactor, select().Platform-specific reactor implementations exist for:Poll for LinuxEpoll for Linux 2.6WaitForMultipleObjects (WFMO) for Win32Input/Output Completion Port (IOCP) for Win32KQueue for FreeBSD and Mac OS XCoreFoundation for Mac OS X
1. Select()-based Reactor
The select reactor is the default on platforms that don't provide a better alternative that covers all use cases. If the select reactor is desired, it may be installed via:
from twisted.internet import selectreactorselectreactor.install()from twisted.internet import reactor
2. Poll-based Reactor
The PollReactor will work on any platform that provides select.poll. With larger numbers of connected sockets, it may provide for better performance than the SelectReactor.
from twisted.internet import pollreactorpollreactor.install()from twisted.internet import reactor
3. KQueue
The KQueue Reactor allows Twisted to use FreeBSD's kqueue mechanism for event scheduling
from twisted.internet import kqreactorkqreactor.install()from twisted.internet import reactor
4. WaitForMultipleObjects (WFMO) for Win32
from twisted.internet import win32eventreactorwin32eventreactor.install()from twisted.internet import reactor
5. Input/Output Completion Port (IOCP) for Win32
Windows provides a fast, scalable event notification system known as IO Completion Ports, or IOCP for short. Twisted includes a reactor based on IOCP which is nearly complete.
from twisted.internet import iocpreactoriocpreactor.install()from twisted.internet import reactor
6. Epoll-based Reactor
The EPollReactor will work on any platform that provides epoll, today only Linux 2.6 and over. The implementation of the epoll reactor currently uses the Level Triggered interface, which is basically like poll() but scales much better.
from twisted.internet import epollreactorepollreactor.install()from twisted.internet import reactor
Relevant Link:
https://moythreads.com/wordpress/2009/12/22/select-system-call-limitation/http://pipeit.blogspot.com/2011/07/select-poll-and-epoll-twisted-story.htmlhttp://twistedmatrix.com/documents/13.2.0/core/howto/choosing-reactor.html#auto2
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